India

Key Facts at a Glance

Employment Law Framework

Indian employment law is highly fragmented and operates across multiple central statutes, state-level legislation, and judicial precedent. There is no single labour code in force; instead, the legal framework consists of dozens of separate enactments, many predating Independence. The four Labour Codes passed in 2019–2020 were intended to consolidate this framework but remain only partially implemented.

Key Central Statutes (Pre-Code Regime, Largely Still in Force)

The Four Labour Codes (2019–2020)

The Government of India enacted four Labour Codes intended to consolidate 29 central labour laws into a simplified framework:

Code on Wages 2019

Consolidates the Minimum Wages Act, Payment of Wages Act, Payment of Bonus Act, and Equal Remuneration Act. Introduces a uniform definition of "wages" and a national floor wage concept.

Industrial Relations Code 2020

Replaces the Industrial Disputes Act, Trade Unions Act, and Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act. Raises the threshold for prior government permission for retrenchment/closure to 300 workers.

Code on Social Security 2020

Consolidates EPF, ESI, Maternity Benefit, Gratuity, and several other social security statutes. Extends coverage to gig and platform workers (a first in Indian law).

Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code 2020

Replaces the Factories Act, Contract Labour Act, Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, and several others. Standardises OSH obligations and contractor licensing.

Implementation Status: Although enacted by Parliament, the Codes have not been brought fully into force. Implementation depends on the Central Government notifying effective dates and on each State Government framing rules under its own concurrent jurisdiction. As of 2026, some states have notified draft rules but the Codes are not in operation in most jurisdictions. Employers must continue to comply with the existing pre-Code statutes until formal commencement.

Federal Structure and Concurrent List

• Labour is on the Concurrent List (Schedule VII, List III) of the Indian Constitution - both Parliament and State Legislatures may legislate.
• Where state and central laws conflict, central law generally prevails (Article 254), but state laws applying additional protections often coexist.
• Implementation, inspection, and enforcement are typically handled by state Labour Departments, with the central Ministry of Labour and Employment overseeing central undertakings and industries.

Ministry of Labour and Employment

"Workman" vs. Non-Workman Distinction

Indian employment law fundamentally distinguishes between "workmen" and others (often called "non-workmen," "managerial," or "executive" employees). This distinction governs which statutes apply, particularly the Industrial Disputes Act, and is central to dismissal protection.

Definition of "Workman" (Section 2(s) IDA)

A workman is any person employed in any industry to do manual, unskilled, skilled, technical, operational, clerical, or supervisory work for hire or reward, but excludes:

• Persons employed mainly in a managerial or administrative capacity
• Persons employed in a supervisory capacity drawing wages exceeding ₹ 10,000 per month (a long-outdated threshold; courts often look at actual functions)
• Members of the armed forces and police

Why the Distinction Matters

Substance Over Title: Indian courts consistently apply a functional test, looking at the dominant nature of duties rather than the job title or salary level. A "Manager" with no real managerial authority may still be classified as a workman, while a senior technical employee may not be. Designations such as "Officer," "Executive," or "Lead" are not determinative.

Practical Implications

• Most operational, clerical, technical, and junior-level employees in factories, BPOs, and shops are workmen.
• Managers, senior executives, and those exercising real decision-making authority typically are not workmen.
• Misclassification can result in litigation many years after termination, with reinstatement and back-wage exposure for the employer.

Termination, Retrenchment and Closure

The Industrial Disputes Act regulates termination of workmen. The framework distinguishes between dismissal for misconduct, retrenchment (redundancy), lay-off (temporary suspension), and closure of an establishment.

Retrenchment (Section 25F IDA)

Retrenchment means termination by the employer for any reason other than disciplinary action, voluntary retirement, retirement on reaching the age, expiry of fixed-term contract, or continued ill health. To validly retrench a workman who has completed 1 year of continuous service, the employer must:

1. Give 1 month's written notice stating reasons (or pay wages in lieu)
2. Pay retrenchment compensation equal to 15 days' average pay for every completed year of continuous service or part thereof exceeding 6 months
3. Notify the appropriate Government in the prescribed manner

Government Permission for Larger Establishments (Section 25N IDA)

Critical: Industrial establishments with 100 or more workmen (in many states; 300 in some, and proposed under the IR Code) require prior written permission from the appropriate Government before retrenching any workman or closing the establishment. Permission must be sought via Form QA at least 3 months in advance. The Government may grant or refuse permission after hearing the employer and the workmen. Retrenchment without permission is illegal and void, and affected workmen are entitled to reinstatement with full back wages.

"Last In, First Out" (LIFO) Rule

• Where retrenchment is permitted, the employer must ordinarily follow the LIFO principle (Section 25G IDA): the workman last employed in a category should be retrenched first.
• Departures from LIFO must be justified by recording reasons.
• Retrenched workmen have a right of re-employment if the employer subsequently hires for the same category (Section 25H IDA).

Dismissal for Misconduct

Dismissal for misconduct (e.g., theft, insubordination, fraud, habitual absenteeism) requires a fair domestic enquiry:

1. Charge sheet: Issue a written charge sheet specifying the alleged misconduct with sufficient particulars
2. Reply: Allow the workman a reasonable period to respond in writing
3. Enquiry: Conduct a fair enquiry by an impartial enquiry officer; the workman is entitled to representation, examination of witnesses, and cross-examination
4. Findings: Issue a reasoned report
5. Show cause on penalty: Issue a show-cause notice on the proposed punishment
6. Final order: Pass a reasoned order of dismissal

Failure to follow these procedural safeguards can render the dismissal void, with the Labour Court empowered to order reinstatement and back wages.

Lay-Off (Section 25C IDA)

• Temporary inability or failure of the employer to give employment to a workman whose name is on the muster rolls and who is not retrenched.
• Workmen on lay-off are entitled to 50% of basic wages and dearness allowance for each day of lay-off (subject to certain conditions).
• Establishments with 100+ workmen require Government permission for lay-off (Section 25M).

Closure (Section 25O IDA)

Closure of an entire industrial establishment with 100+ workmen requires prior Government permission, sought at least 90 days in advance. Compensation is calculated similarly to retrenchment.

Practical Note: The IDA framework, designed in 1947 for an industrial economy, applies awkwardly to modern services and IT sectors. Many software, consulting, and BPO employers structure exits via mutual separation agreements (MSAs) with ex gratia payments to avoid the procedural rigour of IDA proceedings. However, MSAs may still be challenged before Labour Courts if obtained under coercion or without informed consent.

Wages, Minimum Wage and Bonus

India does not have a single national minimum wage. Minimum wages are notified by State Governments under the Minimum Wages Act 1948 (or the Code on Wages 2019, where in force) for over 1,700 scheduled employments, varying by state, occupation, skill level, and zone.

Minimum Wage Framework

• Scheduled employments: Each State and the Centre maintain schedules of employments for which minimum rates are notified. Coverage varies widely.
• Categories: Wages are typically categorised by skill (unskilled, semi-skilled, skilled, highly skilled) and by zone (e.g., metropolitan, urban, rural).
• Variable Dearness Allowance (VDA): Many states revise wages periodically (typically every 6 months) based on a Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers (CPI-IW) linked formula.
• National floor wage: The Code on Wages 2019 contemplates a non-binding national floor wage notified by the Central Government. As of 2026, it remains at indicative levels and is not legally enforceable.

Payment of Wages Act 1936

• Applies to employees earning below a notified wage ceiling (recently raised; varies by state).
• Pay frequency: Wage period must not exceed 1 month. Wages must be paid by the 7th of the following month (10th for establishments with 1,000+ employees).
• Permissible deductions: Strictly limited to those authorised by statute (e.g., income tax, EPF, ESI, fines, absence from duty, recovery of advances).
• Wage slips: Employers must issue wage slips showing all components and deductions.

Payment of Bonus Act 1965

• Applies to factories and establishments with 20 or more employees.
• Eligible employees (drawing salary up to ₹ 21,000/month) are entitled to a statutory annual bonus.
• Minimum bonus: 8.33% of salary per year (irrespective of profit or loss).
• Maximum bonus: 20% of salary per year (depending on allocable surplus).
• Calculated on a notional ceiling of ₹ 7,000/month (or actual wages if lower).

Ministry of Labour Wage Cell

Working Hours, Overtime and Leave

Working hours and leave are governed by the Factories Act 1948 for factory workers and by the relevant state Shops and Establishments Act for shops, commercial establishments, and offices. The two regimes are similar in structure but vary in detail by state.

Factories Act 1948

• Daily limit: 9 hours per day.
• Weekly limit: 48 hours per week.
• Weekly off: One full day per week (typically Sunday).
• Spread-over: Maximum 10.5 hours from start to end of working day, including breaks.
• Rest interval: No worker may work continuously for more than 5 hours without a break of at least 30 minutes.
• Overtime: Work beyond 9 hours/day or 48 hours/week must be paid at twice the ordinary rate. Subject to a quarterly cap (typically 50 hours).

Shops and Establishments Acts (State-Level)

Each State has its own Shops and Establishments Act, applicable to commercial establishments, shops, restaurants, theatres, and IT/services. Common features include:

• Maximum daily hours: typically 9, with some flexibility in IT-enabled services where local rules permit longer limits or compressed weeks.
• Maximum weekly hours: typically 48.
• Mandatory weekly off and rest intervals.
• Overtime payable at typically 2× ordinary rate.
• Restrictions on women working at night (relaxed in many states for IT and ITeS sectors subject to safety conditions).
• Compulsory holidays (national holidays plus state-specific festival holidays).

Statutory Leave Entitlements

Social Security: EPF, ESI and Gratuity

India's social security framework is built on three principal contributory schemes (EPF, ESI, Gratuity) supplemented by sectoral and state schemes. These are administered by the Employees' Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO) and the Employees' State Insurance Corporation (ESIC).

Employees' Provident Fund (EPF)

• Coverage: Establishments with 20 or more employees. Employees earning up to ₹ 15,000/month at first appointment are mandatorily covered; higher earners may opt in.
• Employer contribution: 12% of basic wages + dearness allowance, allocated between EPF (3.67%) and Employees' Pension Scheme (8.33%).
• Employee contribution: 12% of basic wages + dearness allowance.
• Withdrawal: On retirement, resignation (after 2 months of unemployment), or partial withdrawal for housing, education, marriage, medical, or COVID emergencies.
• UAN: Each member has a Universal Account Number portable across employers.

Employees' State Insurance (ESI)

• Coverage: Factories and establishments with 10 or more employees, in notified geographic areas. Employees earning up to ₹ 21,000/month (₹ 25,000/month for persons with disabilities) are mandatorily covered.
• Employer contribution: 3.25% of wages.
• Employee contribution: 0.75% of wages.
• Benefits: Medical care (including for family members), sickness benefit (70% of wages for up to 91 days), maternity benefit, disablement benefit, dependants' benefit, funeral expenses.

Payment of Gratuity Act 1972

• Coverage: Establishments with 10 or more employees.
• Eligibility: Continuous service of 5 years or more (waived in case of death or disablement).
• Calculation: Last drawn salary × 15/26 × completed years of service. Salary = basic + dearness allowance.
• Maximum: ₹ 20 lakh (statutory ceiling, last revised in 2018).
• Tax-free: Up to the statutory ceiling for non-government employees (and entirely tax-free for government employees).
• Payable on: Retirement, resignation, death, or disablement.

Code on Social Security 2020 (Pending)

• Consolidates EPF, ESI, Maternity Benefit, Gratuity, Building and Other Construction Workers, Cine Workers, and Unorganised Workers schemes.
• Extends social security coverage to gig and platform workers - a significant expansion not previously contemplated in Indian law.
• Empowers the Central Government to frame schemes for unorganised sector workers funded by aggregator contributions (1–2% of annual turnover).
• Implementation pending uniform commencement.

EPFO · ESIC

Maternity Benefit Act 1961 (as amended 2017)

The Maternity Benefit Act provides one of the most generous maternity entitlements in the world following the 2017 amendment, which raised paid maternity leave from 12 to 26 weeks. The Act applies to factories, mines, plantations, government establishments, and shops or establishments with 10 or more employees.

Key Entitlements

• Paid maternity leave: 26 weeks (up to 8 weeks before expected delivery and the remainder after). Reduced to 12 weeks for women already having two or more surviving children.
• Adoption / commissioning mother: 12 weeks for a woman who legally adopts a child below the age of 3 months, and for a commissioning mother (genetic mother who has the child via a surrogate).
• Miscarriage / medical termination: 6 weeks of paid leave following the date of the miscarriage or medical termination of pregnancy.
• Tubectomy operation: 2 weeks of paid leave following the date of the operation.
• Illness arising out of pregnancy / delivery: Additional 1 month of paid leave.

Employer Obligations

• Crèche facility: Establishments with 50 or more employees must provide a crèche within a prescribed distance, and the woman must be allowed 4 visits per day to the crèche (including her rest interval).
• Work-from-home: Where the nature of work permits, a woman may avail of work-from-home after the maternity leave period, on terms mutually agreed.
• Notification of rights: The employer must inform every woman, in writing and electronically, of her maternity benefit rights at the time of her appointment.
• Prohibition on dismissal: Discharge or dismissal during maternity leave is unlawful, except for gross misconduct (with prior permission from the Inspector).

Eligibility

• Woman must have worked for the employer for at least 80 days in the 12 months preceding the expected date of delivery.
• Maternity benefit is paid by the employer at the rate of average daily wage (calculated over the preceding 3 months).
• Where ESI applies and the woman's wages are within the ceiling, ESI maternity benefit may apply instead.

Practical Note: The 2017 amendment significantly increased the cost of maternity leave for employers (since the Act mandates employer-borne payment for non-ESI women). This has been criticised as potentially deterring women's hiring; the Government has consulted on a sharing mechanism but no formal employer reimbursement scheme has been enacted as of 2026.

Sexual Harassment at Workplace (POSH Act 2013)

The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act 2013 (commonly "POSH Act") implements the Supreme Court's Vishaka guidelines (1997) into statute. It applies to all workplaces, public or private, organised or unorganised, regardless of size, and protects all women working at the workplace (employees, interns, visitors, contract workers, and clients).

Internal Complaints Committee (ICC)

Mandatory: Every workplace with 10 or more employees must constitute an Internal Complaints Committee (ICC). Failure to do so is a punishable offence with a fine of up to ₹ 50,000 and risks of cancellation of business licences for repeat offences.

ICC Composition

• Presiding Officer: A senior woman employee.
• Two members: Employees committed to the cause of women, with experience in social work or legal knowledge.
• External member: One member from an NGO or association committed to women's causes, or familiar with sexual harassment issues. Mandatory.
• At least half of the ICC members must be women.
• Members serve a term of 3 years.

Key Employer Obligations

• Constitute the ICC and notify all employees of its composition and contact details.
• Display the penal consequences of sexual harassment and the order constituting the ICC at conspicuous places.
• Conduct periodic awareness and training programmes for employees and ICC members.
• Provide a safe working environment, including safety from persons coming into contact at the workplace.
• Treat sexual harassment as misconduct under service rules and initiate disciplinary action.
• File an annual report with the District Officer summarising complaints received and disposed of.
• Include information on POSH compliance in the company's annual report (or board report under the Companies Act).

Complaint Process

1. Written complaint within 3 months of the incident (extendable to 6 months for valid reasons).
2. Conciliation may be attempted if requested by the complainant (no monetary settlement).
3. ICC inquiry to be completed within 90 days.
4. Recommendations issued to the employer within 10 days of inquiry completion.
5. Employer to act on recommendations within 60 days.
6. Either party may appeal to the appellate authority within 90 days.

Local Complaints Committee (LCC)

For workplaces with fewer than 10 employees, or where the complaint is against the employer, complaints may be made to the Local Complaints Committee constituted at the district level by the District Officer.

Trade Unions and Industrial Relations

Indian trade unionism has a long and politically active history. The legal framework is provided by the Trade Unions Act 1926 and the dispute-resolution provisions of the Industrial Disputes Act 1947. Most major trade union federations are affiliated with national political parties.

Trade Unions Act 1926

• Registration: A trade union may be registered with the Registrar of Trade Unions if at least 10% of workers (or 100 workers, whichever is less) in an establishment are members. Minimum 7 members required to apply.
• Outsider participation: Up to one-third of office bearers of a registered trade union may be outsiders (i.e., not employees of the establishment).
• Immunities: Registered trade unions enjoy immunities from civil and criminal liability for acts done in furtherance of trade disputes (Sections 17–18).
• Recognition: The 1926 Act does not provide a statutory recognition framework. Recognition is governed by some State-specific laws (e.g., Maharashtra Recognition of Trade Unions and Prevention of Unfair Labour Practices Act 1971).

Major Central Trade Union Federations

Membership figures are approximate and based on government verification exercises (most recent: 2013). Total recognised central trade union members exceed 30 million across multiple federations.

Industrial Disputes

• Dispute resolution machinery: Conciliation Officers, Boards of Conciliation, Labour Courts, Industrial Tribunals, and National Tribunals (Sections 7–7B IDA).
• Notice of strike/lockout: In public utility services, 14 days' notice is mandatory (Section 22 IDA). In other establishments, no statutory notice is required but unfair labour practices are prohibited.
• Adjudication: Awards of Labour Courts and Tribunals are binding and enforceable as decrees of civil courts.
• Strikes during pendency: Strikes are prohibited during the pendency of conciliation or adjudication proceedings (Section 23 IDA).

Standing Orders (Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act 1946)

Industrial establishments with 100 or more workmen (50 in some states) must adopt certified Standing Orders defining the conditions of employment: working hours, holidays, shift work, leave, classification of workmen, payment of wages, attendance, late coming, suspension, termination, and disciplinary action. Standing Orders must be certified by the Certifying Officer and bind both employer and workmen as a contract.

Directorate General of Labour

Contract Labour and Outsourcing

The Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act 1970 (CLRA) regulates the engagement of workers through contractors. Indian businesses extensively rely on contract labour for non-core activities, but this is subject to regulation and judicial scrutiny.

Coverage and Registration

• Principal employer registration: Required for establishments engaging 20 or more contract workers on any day in the preceding 12 months (50 in some states). Issued by the Labour Department.
• Contractor licensing: Contractors employing 20 or more contract workers (50 in some states) must obtain a licence from the Labour Department for each principal employer they engage with.

Principal Employer Obligations

• Provide canteen, rest rooms, drinking water, washing facilities, and first-aid (where contractor fails).
• Ensure timely payment of wages to contract workers and recover from the contractor.
• Maintain registers and records as prescribed.
• Display the contractor licence and the names of contract workers at the workplace.

Prohibition of Contract Labour

• The appropriate Government may prohibit contract labour in any process, operation, or other work where:
• The work is of a perennial nature
• It is incidental to and necessary for the industry
• It is sufficient to employ a considerable number of whole-time workmen
• It is being done by regular workmen in similar establishments
• Where contract labour is prohibited, the affected workers do not automatically become regular employees of the principal employer (per the Supreme Court's decision in Steel Authority of India v. National Union Waterfront Workers, 2001), but they may seek absorption through industrial dispute proceedings.

Key Risk: Contract labour engaged in core or perennial activities (rather than incidental/non-core work) is subject to challenge in Industrial Tribunals. Courts have repeatedly held that "sham" contract labour arrangements may be set aside, exposing the principal employer to claims for regularisation and back wages. Engaging contract workers in functions identical to those performed by regular employees is particularly risky.

Data Protection (DPDP Act 2023)

India enacted its first comprehensive data protection statute - the Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023 (DPDP Act) - on 11 August 2023. The Act applies to the processing of digital personal data within India, and to processing outside India if connected with offering goods or services to data principals in India. It is enforced by the Data Protection Board of India (DPBI).

Implications for Employers

• Data fiduciary obligations: Employers processing employee personal data are "data fiduciaries" and must comply with notice, purpose limitation, accuracy, retention, and security obligations.
• Lawful basis: Employee data may be processed without consent for "legitimate uses", including the purposes of employment (e.g., payroll, performance, attendance). However, purposes outside the employment context typically require consent.
• Notice requirements: Employers must provide employees with a clear notice describing the data being processed, the purposes, and the manner of exercising rights.
• Data principal rights: Employees have the right to access, correction, erasure, grievance redressal, and nomination.
• Cross-border transfers: Permitted by default to all countries except those specifically restricted by the Central Government.
• Significant Data Fiduciaries (SDFs): Larger or higher-risk fiduciaries may be designated as SDFs by the Government and subject to enhanced obligations (DPO appointment, data protection impact assessments, audit).

Penalties

The DPBI may impose penalties of up to ₹ 250 crore (approximately USD 30 million) per breach for failure to comply with data protection obligations, breach notification requirements, or security safeguards.

Implementation Status: Although enacted in 2023, the operational provisions of the DPDP Act will take effect through phased notifications and the issuance of subordinate Rules by the Central Government. As of 2026, the framework is being progressively rolled out. Employers should track Rule notifications and prepare consent flows, notices, and data inventories.

Other Relevant Provisions

• Information Technology Act 2000 (Section 43A): Continues to apply for "sensitive personal data or information" until superseded by the DPDP Act, requiring "reasonable security practices." The IT Rules 2011 prescribe specific security standards (ISO 27001 or equivalent).
• Constitutional right to privacy: The Supreme Court's decision in K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017) established privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution, providing constitutional grounding for data protection claims.

MeitY Data Protection

Employee Thresholds - Quick Reference

Many thresholds vary by state due to state-level amendments. Some progressive states (e.g., Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh) have raised the IDA threshold for Government permission to 300, anticipating the IR Code. Always verify the applicable state law.

Practical Timelines for Workplace Changes

Workforce restructuring in India is typically slower and more uncertain than in many other jurisdictions due to the procedural rigidity of the IDA and the long timelines of Labour Courts.

Planning Advice: For restructuring exercises involving workmen, allow 6–18 months from initial planning to settled exits (longer if Government permission is required or disputes arise). Multinationals often manage exits via voluntary separation schemes (VSS) with enhanced ex gratia payments to mitigate dispute risk and maintain employer reputation.

Key Challenges and Risk Areas

Statutory Fragmentation: India has more than 40 central labour statutes and hundreds of state laws, many with overlapping coverage. Compliance management at scale requires substantial dedicated resources. The Labour Codes are intended to consolidate this framework, but their delayed implementation perpetuates the existing complexity.

Workman Classification Risk: The functional test for "workman" status creates classification uncertainty for managerial, supervisory, and technical roles. Misclassification exposes employers to retroactive Industrial Disputes Act claims, including reinstatement and back-wages liability years after termination.

State-Level Variation: Each State has its own Shops and Establishments Act, minimum wage notifications, and amendments to central laws. Employers operating in multiple states must maintain state-specific HR policies, registers, and compliance calendars.

Labour Court Backlogs: Industrial disputes regularly take 3–5 years to resolve at first instance, with appeals adding several more years. This creates protracted contingent liability and incentivises pre-litigation settlement.

Contract Labour Compliance: Heavy reliance on contract labour in operations and back-office functions creates exposure to regularisation claims and challenges under the CLRA. Engagement of contract labour for "perennial" work is particularly vulnerable.

POSH Compliance: Many employers (particularly mid-sized and unorganised) have not constituted ICCs or maintain non-functional committees. The Supreme Court has directed strict enforcement of POSH obligations, and listed companies must disclose POSH compliance in their annual reports.

Labour Codes Implementation: The four Labour Codes will, when fully implemented, materially change retrenchment thresholds, social security coverage (including for gig workers), and definitions of "wages." Track Central and State notifications carefully and assess the impact on payroll, compliance, and HR processes in advance.

Resources and Links

Government Departments and Regulators

• Ministry of Labour and Employment
• Employees' Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO)
• Employees' State Insurance Corporation (ESIC)
• e-Shram - National Database of Unorganised Workers
• Ministry of Women and Child Development (POSH oversight)
• Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY)

Legislation

• Labour Codes (Wages, IR, OSH, Social Security)
• India Code - Central Acts Database
• Industrial Disputes Act 1947
• Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023 (MeitY)

Trade Union Federations

• BMS - Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh
• INTUC - Indian National Trade Union Congress
• SEWA - Self-Employed Women's Association

Employer Bodies

• CII - Confederation of Indian Industry
• FICCI - Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
• ASSOCHAM - Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India

See also

• Asia
• China
• Japan
• South Korea